Tsukune Image Used Under Creative Commons License From eatgosee.com
Citizens – My great apologies for this unseemly lacuna between posts, as I have been consumed writing a paper on a new AI governance model which I am getting ready to submit for publication! That chore is now over, so I return with a new sponsor I am proud to embark on a bold new project with! I speak of the fine people at Koji House, who have asked Me to share recipes taking advantage of their unmatched koji offerings! First up – tsukune, aka Japanese meatballs – and if you don’t know anything about koji’s transformative powers – you’re about to learn!
First, however – let us discuss tsukune, one of My favorite samplings from any good yakitori restaurant (where Japanese grilling is their sole specialty)!
Tsukune (つくね) is a traditional Japanese dish featuring meatballs made primarily from ground chicken, which are kneaded with seasonings and typically skewered before being grilled yakitori-style and glazed with a sweet-savory tare sauce composed of soy sauce, mirin, sake, and sugar. Key ingredients for tsukune typically include ground chicken thigh for its higher fat content and juiciness, finely chopped onions or scallions, grated ginger and garlic for aroma, an egg or potato starch as a binder, and salt or soy sauce for seasoning; some recipes incorporate minced chicken cartilage or shiso leaves for added texture and flavor.
The tare sauce, a hallmark of the dish, is reduced to a glossy consistency and brushed on during grilling to caramelize the surface, enhancing the meatballs’ umami profile. Preparation begins with thoroughly kneading the meat mixture—often for several minutes—to develop proteins for tenderness and prevent crumbling, followed by shaping into oval patties or balls about 1-4 inches long, skewering on bamboo sticks, and cooking over high heat, such as broiling at 550°F or charcoal grilling, for 6-10 minutes total while flipping and glazing.
The meatballs are rotated multiple times during cooking to ensure even browning, typically reaching an internal temperature of 165°F (74°C). This technique imparts a smoky aroma and firm yet juicy texture, commonly served at izakaya or street stalls.
In Japanese cuisine, tsukune holds a prominent place as a staple in yakitori restaurants and izakayas (bars serving snacks), where it is enjoyed as an appetizer or main alongside drinks like sake or beer, fostering social dining experiences. This form highlights its role as a versatile protein component in Japanese cuisine, often prepared through grilling to achieve a caramelized exterior while retaining moisture inside.
The seasoning is typically subtle, relying on ingredients such as ginger, garlic, and soy to enhance the natural meat flavor without overpowering it, resulting in a balanced, savory profile. Commonly presented on skewers in yakitori style for easy grilling and eating, tsukune can also appear as loose meatballs in soups or stews, adapting to various meal formats. Unlike denser Western meatballs that often incorporate heavy binders such as extensive breadcrumbs, tsukune prioritizes lightness and tenderness through minimal binders and techniques such as hand-kneading to develop a smooth, cohesive yet delicate consistency.
The term tsukune derives from the Japanese verb tsukuneru (捏ねる), which means “to knead” or “to form by hand,” directly reflecting the manual process of mixing and shaping ground meat into balls or patties. This etymological root emphasizes the tactile, hands-on technique central to the dish’s preparation, where ingredients are thoroughly worked together to achieve a cohesive texture.
In kanji, tsukune is written as 捏ね or sometimes simply in hiragana as つくね, with the character 捏 specifically denoting the action of pinching, kneading, or molding clay or dough by hand – a connotation that underscores the artisanal shaping involved in forming the meatballs. This writing highlights the physical manipulation required, distinguishing it from mere chopping or grinding.
The word tsukune connects to broader Japanese culinary terms for formed proteins, such as tsumire (魚のつみれ), a fish-based dumpling often used in soups; while tsumire originates from tsumi-ireru (摘み入れる), meaning “to pinch and insert,” both share roots in manual forming techniques applied to ground meats or fish. This linguistic overlap illustrates how tsukune evolved within traditions of hand-shaped foods, though it specifically pertains to meat preparations.
Early forms of yakitori, involving skewered and grilled wild birds such as quail and pheasants, emerged during the Edo period (1603–1868) as part of the street food culture in urban centers like Edo (now Tokyo), where vendors catered to commoners. This development aligned with the period’s economic expansion and urbanization, allowing affordable grilled snacks to become accessible amid restrictions on meat consumption influenced by Buddhist traditions. These early yakitori preparations utilized economical wild bird parts for quick cooking at yatai stalls during festivals and markets.
The use of wild bird scraps by vendors reflected resourcefulness in an era when premium meats were scarce, transforming lesser-quality parts into flavorful, portable treats grilled over charcoal. Historical records from the Edo period document yakitori’s presence in elite dining, such as a 17th-century menu for a castle lord featuring grilled bird, indicating the dish’s initial roots before its democratization through street vending. Depictions of skewered grilled items at festivals and yatai appear in ukiyo-e prints and contemporary literature, capturing the vibrant street food scene.
The roots of meat kneading practices trace back to ancient hunter-gatherer times around 2,700 years ago, but tsukune as a named dish developed later. Traditional preparation involved grinding meat by hand using a suribachi—a ridged ceramic mortar and wooden pestle that became prominent in the Edo period—to achieve the desired texture before forming and skewering. This method ensured tenderness and integration of seasonings, forming the basis of the dish’s technique.
During the Meiji era (1868–1912), the lifting of the traditional ban on meat consumption facilitated the rise of yakitori dishes, which were incorporated into izakaya menus as affordable appetizers paired with sake. Chicken-based varieties, including tsukune, became more common as poultry farming expanded. Refinements in preparation emerged, such as glazing with tare sauce to enhance flavor and caramelization during grilling, aligning with the era’s growing urban pub culture.
The modern skewered form of chicken tsukune originated post-World War II in 1948 at Shibuya Morimoto, a renowned yakitori restaurant in Tokyo. Following the war, tsukune gained popularity in home cooking as ground chicken became more affordable amid economic recovery. This period saw adaptations inspired by Western meatballs, yet tsukune retained Japanese minimalism through simple seasonings like ginger and scallions, making it a staple for family meals.
In the 20th century, technological advancements like the adoption of blenders and food processors revolutionized preparation by enabling finer grinding of meat and cartilage, resulting in smoother textures compared to traditional hand-kneading. This contributed to regional specialties, such as Kansai-style oden variants incorporating tsukune for added heartiness in lighter, soy-infused broths.
The global dissemination of tsukune accelerated in the 2000s with the expansion of Japanese restaurants abroad, reaching approximately 187,000 outlets worldwide as of 2023, many featuring izakaya-style menus. In the U.S., for instance, tsukune has appeared in fusion cuisines, such as Japanese-Italian hybrids like tsukune agnolotti.
The primary protein in tsukune is ground chicken, typically derived from chicken thighs to provide essential fat content that ensures juiciness and a tender texture upon grilling. Thighs are preferred over leaner breast meat in traditional preparations for their higher fat ratio, which prevents dryness, though some recipes blend thigh and breast for a slightly leaner profile while maintaining moisture.
The preparation of tsukune begins with grinding the chosen meat using a grinder fitted with a small die for a fine texture, or by manually chopping with a cleaver if fresh grinding is preferred. Once ground, the meat is combined with binders such as egg or potato starch along with seasonings. It is then kneaded manually by hand for approximately 5 to 10 minutes, or until the mixture becomes pale, sticky, and develops a cohesive, gluten-like texture through the activation of proteins such as myosin. This ensures the meatballs hold together during cooking.
Next, the mixture is hand-molded into balls or oval patties measuring 1 to 2 inches in diameter, often pressed firmly onto soaked bamboo skewers (known as kushi) to facilitate even grilling and prevent the shapes from falling apart. The formed tsukune are then chilled briefly in the refrigerator for 1 to 2 hours to firm up the mixture and enhance structural integrity before cooking.
The primary cooking method involves grilling the skewered tsukune over binchotan charcoal at high heat, approximately 800 to 1000°F, for 3 to 4 minutes per side to achieve a charred exterior while keeping the interior juicy, with frequent basting using tare sauce during the final stages to build a glossy glaze. Upon completion, the tsukune are rested for 5 minutes to allow juices to redistribute and lock in moisture.
Alternative methods include boiling, where the unskewered balls are simmered gently for 5 to 7 minutes until cooked through, often in a hot pot broth, such as in the famed sumo stew known as chanko. Tsukune may also be deep-fried at approximately 350°F until golden and crisp on the outside, typically 4 to 6 minutes depending on size. These unusual preparations aside, tsukune are usually enjoyed in their grilled form.
Tsukune exhibits versatility through various cooking methods that highlight its adaptability in Japanese cuisine, extending beyond the traditional grilling to include simmering, frying, and oven techniques. These approaches alter the texture, flavor absorption, and presentation of the meatballs, often tailored to seasonal or contextual needs such as communal dining or home preparation.
Tsukune is presented as shareable skewers that complement drinks like beer and sake, fostering communal eating experiences among groups of friends, colleagues, or family in bars and restaurants. These establishments emphasize casual social gatherings, with tsukune’s juicy, grilled form encouraging diners to pass skewers around the table, enhancing the lively atmosphere typical of after-work nomikai aka relaxed evenings out.
A key aspect of tsukune enjoyment involves pairings that elevate its primary flavors; tsukune is traditionally dipped in raw egg yolk (tamago), which adds a creamy richness to the savory meatballs. This robust taste pairs seamlessly with beer for a refreshing contrast or sake to deepen the umami profile. Not that in Japan, egg yolks are safe to eat raw (not true in the United States, sadly) – though the chances of getting salmonella from raw eggs is very low if they are properly handled.
Now – as to koji, the secret ingredient in My tsukune (and, as it happens, also in the most elite yakitori restaurants, though they will never tell!) – allow me to quote from the Koji House’s own website:
Koji (also spelled kōji or kouji) is traditionally a cooked grain, most commonly rice, that has been inoculated with Aspergillus oryzae, the fermentation culture known as koji mold. Koji has been famously cultivated in Japan for thousands of years for its uniquely transformative powers. Koji enhances food by producing enzymes that transform nutrients like starches and proteins to create tasty sugars and amino acids.
Koji is the foundation of Japanese cuisine and was declared Japan’s “official national fungus” in 2006. Koji has a millennia-long history in the island nation reflected in their most popular food staples: miso, soy sauce (shoyu), sake, amazake and so much more! The process of making rice wine and fermented bean paste using molds was first documented in the 4th century B.C. In 725 AD the Japanese book Harima no Kuni Fudoki (‘Geography and Culture of the Harima Province’) first mentioned koji outside of China and described that the Japanese produced koji with fungal spores from the air.
Koji unlocks richer flavor and texture in your favorite foods. This is made possible by the powerful enzymes koji produces, protease and amylase, which naturally boost sweet and umami flavors by breaking down larger proteins into savory amino acids and carbohydrates into sweet simple sugars during fermentation. These powerful enzymes are also natural tenderizers – try ’em on whatever veggies or protein you like! Koji can also be used to supercharge classic ferments, too – got a favorite fermented hot sauce recipe? Koji will make it better. Want to experiment with it in your own kitchen?
Koji’s powerful enzymes help predigest the nutrients in your favorite foods, boosting their availability and absorption, helping your body’s digestion while supplying it with more available vitamins and minerals. Koji also has prebiotic properties and is suspecting to be linked to the lengthened longevity in broader Japanese society. Healthy and delicious? What’s not to love…
The following timeline on koji’s history is from the website nordicfoodlab.org:
A brief history of koji
300BCE – in Zhouli (‘Rites of the Zhou dynasty’), China – the first written mention of qu. The first conceptual framework to connect soy sauces, jiangs/misos, fermented black soybeans, grain-based wines like sake and li (a Chinese precursor to Japanese amazake), and other koji-based foods.
90BCE – in Shiji (‘Records of the Historian’), by Sima Qian, China – indications that fermented black soybeans and qu were already major commodities in the Chinese economy.
121CE – in Shuowen Jiezi (‘Analytical Dictionary of Characters’), China – earliest known written character for qu/koji, composed of a top radical for bamboo (竹) over the character for chrysanthemum (菊). The etymology for this character interpreted by Huang (2000) stems from the idea that qu could have occurred when cooked rice was left in a bamboo basket exposed to air, which over time turned the yellow colour of chrysanthemum. The contemporary character for koji/qu, in both Chinese and Japanese, is 麹.
544CE – in Qimin Yaoshu (‘Important Arts for the People’s Welfare’), by Jian Sixie, China – the first known detailed description of how to make qu. It includes recipes for nine types of qu and 37 types of grain-based wine.
725CE – in Harima no Kuni Fudoki (‘Geography and Culture of Harima province’), Japan – the first known written mention of koji outside of China. Made using airborne koji moulds.
965CE – in Qing Yilu (‘Anecdotes, simple and exotic’), by Tao Ku, China – the earliest known reference to hong qu, or red rice qu. It includes a recipe for red pot-roast lamb, involving lamb simmered with red rice koji.
1603 – in Vocabulario da Lingoa de Iapam (‘Vocabulary of the Language of Japan’) – Japanese-Portuguese dictionary for Jesuit missionaries in Nagasaki. Contains entries for:
Côji [Koji], a yeast [sic] used in Japan to make sake, or mixed with other things.
Amazaqe [Amazake], a still-bubbling fermented liquid that has not yet completely become sake; or sweet sake.
This is the earliest known European-language document that references koji and amazake.
1712 – in Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum (‘Exotic novelties, political, physical, medical’) by Engelbert Kaempfer – Kaempfer traveled and lived in Japan from September 1690 to November 1692, mentioning koji, or ‘koos’ as he called it, as part of the process of making miso.
1766 – Samuel Bowen, an American, begins producing, selling, and exporting Chinese-style soy sauce in Thunderbolt near Savannah, Georgia based on a technique he learned in China. Bowen was the first to introduce the soybean to North America (Hymowitz & Harlan 1983).
1779 – in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2nd edition – the entry for ‘Dolichos’ mentions ‘koos’ (after Kaempfer).
1818 – in Account of a Voyage of Discovery to… the Great Loo-Choo Island [Ryukyu, or Okinawa], by Basil Hall – “…hard boiled eggs, cut into slices, the outside of the white being colored red.” This red colour was likely imparted to the outside of the shelled eggs by red rice koji, known in Japan as beni-koji.
1867 – in A Japanese and English Dictionary, by James C. Hepburn – the first written occurrence of koji referred to as a ‘malt’.
1878 March 10 – in Koji no setsu (‘Theory of Koji’), published in Japanese in Tokyo Iji Shinshi (Tokyo Medical Journal) by H. Ahlburg and Shinnosuke Matsubara – the first scientific article ascribing a latin binomial to koji mould. Ahlburg named the mould Eurotium oryzae, which was later renamed Aspergillus oryzae by Cohn in 1884. Japanese scientists rapidly adopting Western microbiology.
1878 Sept 12 – in Brewing in Japan, by R.W. Atkinson, British professor at University of Tokyo, published by Nature (London) – the earliest English-language document that mentions ‘tane’, or koji spores, and ‘tomo koji’, or wood ash.
1881 May 1 – R.W. Atkinson explicitly distinguishes koji from malt, and insists on the use of the Japanese word in English to avoid “erroneous impressions”.
1891 Feb 20 – The first article (appearing in the Chicago Daily Tribune) about Jokichi Takamine, a Japanese chemist residing in Chicago who developed method of using koji instead of malt to make whiskey, with 12-15% improvement in efficiency.
1894 Feb 23 – Takamine applies for a patent for ‘Taka-Diastase’, now known as the amylase produced by Aspergillus oryzae. This is the first US patent for a microbial enzyme.
1895 July – Takamine contracts with Parke, Davis & co. of Detroit, Michigan to manufacture and market Taka-Diastase on a large commercial scale. This is the earliest known commercially-produced enzyme in North America.
1897 – Yamamori Jozo-sho in San Jose, CA is the earliest-known company to produce shoyu (Japanese soy sauce) in the US.
1906 – Karuhorunia Miso Seizo-jo (California Miso Manufacturing Co.) in San Francisco is the earliest-known company to make miso in the US.
1908 – Kodama Miso Seizo-sho in Los Angeles is the earliest-known company to make and sell koji in the US, advertising its product as ‘Shiro Koji’.
1913 – Marusan Joto Shiromiso in Los Angeles is the earliest-known company to sell and advertise koji in English, as ‘Special Koji’.
1972 – The Erewhon Trading Co., Inc. catalog entitled ‘Traditional Foods’ advertises its koji imported from Japan. At this point there was a resurgent interest in koji in North America with the macrobiotic, natural-foods, and soyfoods movements.
2004 – Professor emeritus Eiji Ichishima of Tohoku University, Japan, proposes in Nippon Jozo Kyokai Zasshi (Journal of the Brewing Society, Japan) that Aspergillus oryzae become the ‘national fungus’ (kokkin), just like a national bird, flower, tree, or animal. The proposal is approved at the society’s annual meeting in 2006.
It should be noted that while the dominant popular narrative surrounding the flow of ideas – and associated structures of power – in the world has gone from ‘West’ to ‘East’, in the case of koji technology the knowledge has moved from East Asia to Europe and North America – very much the opposite. For more information about the history of koji, look into the extensive book by Shurtleff and Aoyagi from 2012 called ‘The History of Koji’, available free online.
I have used koji in two previous recipes here on TFD – they are linked here – but with them, koji was used as a way to simulate the long dry aging effects on beef or pork in a much more rapid fashion. In this recipe, koji is used to add an inimitable meaty savor to the tsukune and trust Me, it took FOREVER to suss out how elite yakitori chefs used it as their “secret weapon” in making the finest tsukune! Well, the bro code is broken now and that secret is now yours for the taking, My glorious Citizens of TFD Nation!
For My tsukune – I have chosen to add additional depth of flavor by using 25% ground duck in addition to ground chicken thigh, and trust Me this is a GENIUS move that truly elevates the flavor of the tsukune! In place of the traditional ground chicken cartilage for texture, I have chosen instead to substitute – VERY VERY optionally – a small amount of braised Chinese beef tendon instead. Trust Me, this only adds texture and a strong soy flavor to the tsukune – tendon itself is tasteless. Any good REAL Chinese restaurant should have it on the menu – here is the Chinese text to help you: 紅燒牛筋 . If in doubt, simply omit it – though it really does add to the dish!
I also call for a small amount of duck or chicken fat – your butcher should be able to just give you what you need, it’s a small quantity. You will also need top-quality sansho powder, a spice made from a very similar tree as Sichuan peppercorns and with similar numbing effects (though I find sansho more citrusy and delicate than any Sichuan peppercorn!) – get a top-quality version here. I also call for hatcho miso (the best style, IMHO) made from aged barley and soybeans – you can grab a spectacular version from Amazon here. I would normally call for Japanese zarame sugar, but it’s impossible to source in the US – demerara sugar is VERY close and you can grab it inexpensively here.
Knorr Aromat is ALWAYS My preference over standard salt for umami – grab it from Amazon here. Kentucky makes some of the finest soy sauce outside (or inside!) of Japan – this is My preferred brand, buy it here. I take the extra step of coating My tsukune in glutinous rice flour to steam them before grilling, which adds both structure and texture without the need for extra binders that toughen the meat – you can buy it from Amazon here. Kadoya sesame oil is My go-to brand, buy it here and you can get top-quality mirin from this link. Proper bamboo skewers are here, the best shichimi togarashi seasoning spice is here, and Japanese binchotan charcoal (the best in the world for yakitori!) is here.
Of course – you MUST use ground koji rice in the tsukune to achieve My preferred umami level – and ONLY KOJI HOUSE WILL DO! Buy the correct koji here.
Citizens – this is simply the ULTIMATE tsukune recipe on the Web – BAR NONE! ChatGPT agrees with me, BTW – see it’s review here.
3/4lb. skin-on, boneless chicken thighs, ground with a fine grind plate by your butcher
1/4lb. duck breast with skin, ground with a fine grind plate by your butcher (Optional TFD change, can be replaced with boneless chicken thighs)
3 Tbsp. pre-cooked braised beef tendon, blitzed to tiny pieces in a food processor (highly optional but delicious and textually important TFD addition - order it from any good authentic Chinese restaurant)
1 Tbsp. duck fat (preferred) or chicken fat
1 tsp. Japanese sansho powder (optional but recommended)
4 fresh shiso leaves - if you can’t find them, try 2 fresh basil leaves with 3 fresh spearmint leaves
Soak the bamboo wooden paddle skewers (6 inches long) in water for 60 minutes. Soaking will prevent the sticks from burning while grilling.
To Make the Tare Yakitori Sauce: In a small saucepan, combine all the tare ingredients. Bring the mixture to a boil over medium heat. Once boiling, lower the heat to a simmer and cook for about 30 minutes. Meanwhile, start preparing the tsukune mixture. When the sauce has thickened and reduced by half, remove from the heat. Remember, the sauce will continue to thicken as it cools and moisture evaporates.
To Make the Tsukune meatballs: Heat an ungreased frying pan over medium heat. When it’s hot, add ⅓ of the ground meat. Precooking some of the meat mixture prevents the meatball from shrinking too much while cooking and keeps the tsukune juicy.
Cook the meat—without browning it—until no longer pink. While cooking, break it up into small pieces with a wooden spatula. Transfer the cooked meat to a large bowl and let it cool completely.
Stack and roll up shiso leaves, then cut into thin julienned slices.
When the cooked ground chicken is completely at room temperature, add the remaining uncooked ground meat to it and combine. Then, add onion and duck fat. Using the wooden spatula, knead the mixture well. Add the julienned shiso, yuzu or lemon rind, miso and ground koji, minced simmered beef tendon and knead well.
With the wooden spatula, spread the mixture around the bowl and then mix. Repeat it a few times. Now, switch to mixing by hand. Knead and fold the mixture in a clockwise direction 30 times. Then, knead it counterclockwise 30 times. The meat will become paler in color and sticky. This process is very important for the meat to stay on a stick, so please do not skip this step. Tip: If the fat in the mixture starts to look melted, refrigerate it for 10 minutes, then continue kneading until the mixture is pale and sticky.
Now, divide the mixture into 8 equal portions. Patties that are the same size will cook at the same rate and finish cooking at the same time.
To Shape the Tsukune: Lightly coat your hands with sesame oil to prevent the meat from sticking. Scoop up one portion of the meat mixture. Toss the meat back and forth between your hands to release the air pockets. Then, gently squeeze and shape the meat to form it into a long and oval patty, about 4 inches (10 cm) long.
Place 1 cup glutinous sweet rice flour on a plate. Working one at a time, dredge tsukune in the rice flour, turning to coat, and transfer as many as will snugly fit to a parchment-lined large steamer basket.
Pour water into a large saucepan to come 1″ up sides and bring to a boil. Set steamer on top and cover. Steam tsukune until just cooked through, 6–8 minutes. Repeat process with any remaining tsukune if needed.
Flatten the patty a bit. Now, place the top half to two-thirds of a skewer along the center line of the patty. Then, gently close the two sides of the patty around the skewer to encase the stick‘s tip and top part. Seal the edges of the patty together and form it again into a long, cylindrical shape. This thin shape allows the heat to penetrate the meat quickly.
Gently toss the skewered patty from one hand to the other a few times to make sure the front and back sides are nicely formed. Press and form the meat gently into shape.
Prepare a grill for high heat. Place tare in a tall, narrow glass (you should be able to submerge tsukune when you dunk it in the tare). Thread each tsukune onto a skewer.
Grill tsukune, turning and dipping in tare every 2 minutes, until richly glazed, deeply browned, and charred in spots, about 8 minutes total.
Transfer the skewers to a serving plate and brush extra sauce on the meat, then lightly sprinkle shichimi togarashi over. Serve with lemon wedges for optionally squeezing over the tsukune skewers. Serve immediately.
In Japan, tsukune is often served with raw egg yolk (which is safe to consume in Japan). Optionally, dip in the raw egg yolk (put into a soy sauce bowl with soy around it) and enjoy! Note that raw quail egg yolks do NOT carry any Salmonella risk whatsoever and are the safest choice to use in the U.S.
To Store: You can keep the leftovers in an airtight container and store in the refrigerator for up to 3 days and in the freezer for a month.
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